Click here for information about codes of ethics around the world.
The journalist faces difficult decisions daily. Should I reveal this information? Who will it benefit; who will it harm? Many factors influence the decisions; some are in the journalist's control, others outside. A person's ethics may be built around three broad categories:
Absolutism holds a fixed set of principles or laws exists from which there should be no deviation. The absolutist journalist is concerned only with whether an event is newsworthy. Nothing newsworthy is ever withheld from the public.
Antinomianism rejects all rules and, in effect, all ethics. The term antinomian means "against law." This type of journalist might pose as someone other than a journalist to gather information, and he/she would not be bothered.
Situation ethics lies between the two extremes. In the broad sense, people always come first. The prevailing ethic in journalism is what John Stuart Mill call "utilitarianism," the greatest good for the greatest number. For instance, a story about a person convicted of DWI would embarrass the driver and the family. But most journalists would argue society needs to know about that driver and about how the courts are handling cases dealing with drunken drivers. It will have a positive long-term impact upon the community; thus, the greatest good for the greatest number.
Social-Responsibility Rationale accepts the concept that media have certain rights from the government if they act responsibly.
Social Responsibility is tied to a form of government that is based an the Constitution and the Bill of Rights. In theory we have a free market place of ideas that coincides with capitalism and the free-enterprise system.
We couldn't have free-enterprise without that. And, we couldn't have a
free press without the free enterprise system to back it up. Why? Controls in one area would mean controls in other areas too.
In summary: We give the media in America enormous power. At the same
time, we hold media personnel (reporters, editors, photojournalists and anyone acting in news production) to the highest standard of responsibility; thus, media law and media ethics check against misuse by the media.
We have looked at Media Law together, and now let's tackle ethics.
Decision making and Ethical Perspectives on the News
In the cover photo of Oprah (above) on Aug. 26, 1989: TV Guide pastes Oprah's head onto Ann Margaret's body
Most professional media organizations have ethics codes.
Here is the Society of Professional Journalists Code of Ethics
Here is the Radio and Television News Directors Association Code of Ethics
Here is the Public Relations Society of America Code of Ethics
Here is the National Press Photographers Association Code of Ethics
Here is Ethics in Advertising and Public Relations
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Freebies or payola — You go to work for a radio station where the general manager tells you that advertising is just another form of news. So if one of the station's big advertisers has a special promotion, you should do a news story about it. What do you do? Public perception is difficult to measure, rather like the difference between a person's reputation and his/her character. If the public perceives a media person is somehow "on the take," all the talk in the world will not change that perception. Unfortunate, but true.
Unnamed Sources — Here is another statement about confidential sources.
Plagiarism — Don't use someone else's work without credit.
A San Antonio Express-News staff writer for the SA Life section was fired Thursday after it was discovered a story published Wednesday under her byline had been plagiarized. Thelma Garza, who became a reporter on the features staff in August 1995, was dismissed after editors confronted her about the plagiarism allegations. during a brief discussion, Garza acknowledged she had used a version of the story as it appeared in the St. Petersburg Times, whih she had read during a recent visit to Florida. A Knight-Ridder editor recognized similarities between her story and one written by Joan Chrissos of the Miami Herald, which had been distributed via the Knight-Ridder/Tribune News Service and picked up by the St. Petersburg Times. A comparison of the two articles clearly showed that Garza had taken her story almost verbatim and in its entirety from Chrissos' piece.
Check out stories and opinions about Jayson Blair, former reporter at the New York Times (photo below)
Secondary employment — If you work as a news reporter or editor, you should not moonlight for a politician. The editor and publisher of a South Texas weekly is asking a bit too much of his readers. He wants them to believe that he can run an independent newspaper and work for one of his sources at the same time.
Greg Wendorff, 46, editor and publisher of the Advance News-Journal in Pharr, has accepted a $40,000-a-year contract to handle publicity for the Pharr-San Juan-Alamo School District. While there is nothing illegal in what Wendorff proposes to do, it presents a clear conflict of interest.
Pack Journalism — Stand by your publication's standards even if others do not.
Misrepresenting your purpose — A reporter always identifies himself/herself to interview subjects.
Political involvement — This is a tough call. Consider the situation below.
By Gail Shister
Knight-Ridder
When anchors and reporters wear American flag pins and ribbons on the air, is it patriotism or bac journalism?
That's the question network news divisions have been grappling with since the terrorists attacks on New York and Washington Sept. 11. ABC, CBS and NBC have no set policy, but discourage staffers from wearing patriotic symbols on camera. Such displays, they say, can damage their credibility as objective news sources. Bob Steele, head of the ethics program at the Poynter Institute, a journalism think tank in St. Petersburg, Fla., says "it's exceptionally risky" for reporters to wear flags. "Journalists should remain independent in both substance and symbolism. That doesn't mean we should throw away our beliefs, but we shouldn't wear them on our lapels."
Entrapment
ST. LOUIS - AP - A grand jury is to decide whether a TV station broke the law by set. ting up a meeting between a male prostitute and a priest. However, there's no doubt the station breached ethical standards, two journalism professors said. "Reporters are supposed to be observers, not participants, certainly not people who create or cause events to take place," said Michael Murray, director of mass communications at the University of Missouri-St. Louis. KMOV said it was pursuing a story about sexual misconduct by priests and set up the hotel room meeting in hopes the priest would discuss sexual activity by other clergy. The story never aired, and station management apologized.
"However, the fact that we did not air it does not absolve us from our responsibilities, and we deeply regret, and I apologize for, the errors in judgment," Francis Patrick Brady, president of Viacom's television group, said.
CORPUS CHRISTI -- A reporter for the Corpus Christi Caller-Times participated in a pollice sting by posing as a prostitute, leading to arrests, the newspaper's editor said. Editor Libby Averyt said Venessa Santos-Garza acted in the undercover role with the knowledge of supervisors. The newspaper's Web site Thursday revealed that Santos-Garza was present when police conducted a sting of johns Dec. 13 and was present for two arrests. "We made a mistake in judgment, and it's why we have not and will not run a story with information gathered that day," Averyt said. Caller-Times attorney Jorge C. Rangel said if Santos-Garza's testimony is necessary in court she will be prepared to testify.
Checkbook Journalism
Reader interest in celebrities and sensationalism has led to fierce competition between print and electronic news organizations. Click here for the controversy over Pvt. Jessica Lynch. Some tabloid newspapers and television shows pay individuals for their stories, whether those individuals are celebrities themselves or are connected to a sensational story. Witnesses and jury members in high profile court cases are pursued with offers of cash for their stories. Domestic staff and business associates of celebrities accept money to give their stories.
Mainstream newspapers and television news divisions do not pay for stories. How does this practice of "checkbook journalism" affect the accuracy of news coverage? How does checkbook journalism affect the judicial system? How does it affect the reputation of legitimate newspapers and news programs? What are the First Amendment rights of individuals who sell their stories?
Lack of Fair Play — Here is a statement about fair play in reporting.
Invasion of Privacy
Staging the news — Setting up a scene that is not real.
Look at these ethical problems from Indiana University:
Click here for the First Amendment Handbook.© 1986, 1989, 1992, 1995, 1999 by The Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press. All rights reserved. No part of this booklet may be reproduced in any form or by any means without the prior, written permission of the publisher.
One final photograph (left) to consider. The execution was to take place inside, but the executioner decided to move it outside so photographers could have better light. The execution was real, but it was staged by the shooter. The photographer just happened to be at the right spot at the right time.
This picture was shot by Eddie Adams who won the Pulitzer Prize with it. The picture shows Nguyen Ngoc Loan, South Vietnam’s national police chief, executing a prisoner who was said to be a Viet Cong captain. Once again public opinion in the United States was turned against the war.
Adams said: With North Vietnam’s Tet Offensive beginning, Nguyen Ngoc Loan was doing all he could to keep Viet Cong guerrillas from Saigon.
Sources and Reporters
The San Francisco Chronicle's code offers one of the clearest treatments on the always-thorny matter of dealing with sources that want confidentiality. It reads in part: A reporter who pledges confidentiality to a source must not violate that pledge. If the reporter is asked by an editor for the identity of a source, the reporter should advise the source of the editor's request. If the source wishes to withhold his or her identity from the editor, then the reporter and editor must decide whether or not to use the information even though the source's identity remains known only to the reporter.
Editorial Independence
The Kansas City Star (Missouri) is one of the few papers to address possible tensions between the roles of the editorial and business sides of the paper. In its conflicts of interest section of the code of ethics, the policy reads: Maintain a clear line between advertising and news. We are especially inviting as targets of threats to remove advertising if we don't write positive stories. In cases of special sections produced by the editorial department, editors will exercise sole judgment over content.
White Plains Journal News takes a more detailed approach in its "Standards of Professional Conduct" for news employees: Do not describe a person by race, religion, or ethnic background unless it is pertinent to the story. Do not quote racial, ethnic, or religious jokes or slurs unless essential to the story (they rarely will be). In descriptions of crime suspects, do not use racial or ethnic characterizations unless they are part of a fairly complete description of a fugitive suspect that could reasonably assist the public in helping police. Be especially sensitive to nuances of using any references that may be offensive to a minority group. If there are inoffensive alternatives, use them. Stories, illustrations, and photographs should be mainstreamed; that is, an effort should be made to include minority representation in routine ways so that our news coverage more accurately reflects the makeup of the communities we cover. Be wary of racial stereotyping in photographs.
New Technology
The Journal Gazette (Fort Wayne, Indiana) is one of the few papers to even address matters of the Internet in its ethics policy: Apply our high standards for accuracy and attribution to anything you find using electronic services. Make certain a communication is genuine and information accurate before using it in a story.
Raleigh's News & Observer also addresses matters of ethics in the use of the Internet. Its section on plagiarism reads: Don't present other people's ideas or writing and pass them off as your own. With the explosion of the Internet, we have more access to more information from more sources, but we have to resist the temptation to use it without attribution. This policy is simple, and it's safe: Don't do it.
The Journal News of White Plains, New York, (formerly Gannett Suburban Newspapers) includes this in the section on fairness: Allegations against an individual often require a response. If the person cannot be reached, say so — but only after a serious effort to get to the person has been made. Consider delaying publication, if possible, to reach the other side; if that is not possible, consider continuing to try to get to the person for an insert for later editions or for a follow-up story. If publication of a story has been delayed, additional efforts to get to persons unavailable at the time of writing should be considered.
Enforcement
Of the 33 newspaper codes examined in a recent study at the Poynter Institute in Florida, many do not address enforcement. Of those that do, the treatment is usually brief and general. Many of the codes contain some reference to the fact that no code can anticipate all problems, suggesting the need for consultation with supervisors whenever a potential problem arises. However, few spell out a systematic process for airing a grievance or resolving a conflict.
The code of ethics of The Dallas Morning News (Texas) merely states that "violating some guidelines could result in disciplinary action or termination."
The News Journal in Wilmington, Delaware, is the most expansive in its treatment of enforcement of its code. It includes seven specific points, one of which speaks to an honor code concept: "It is the obligation of staff members to bring any violation of this code to the attention of the supervisor or the editor."
Updated Feb. 15, 2009